.TL INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 1 .LP This volume gives descriptions of the publicly available features of the Eighth Edition system in use at the Computing Science Research Center of AT&T Bell Laboratories. It does not attempt to provide perspective or tutorial information upon the .UX operating system, its facilities, or its implementation. Various documents on those topics are contained in Volume 2. In particular, for an overview see `The .UX Time-Sharing System' by Ritchie and Thompson; for a tutorial see `\s8UNIX\s0 for Beginners' by Kernighan. .LP Within the area it surveys, this volume attempts to be timely, complete and concise. Where the latter two objectives conflict, the obvious is often left unsaid in favor of brevity. It is intended that each program be described as it is, not as it should be. Inevitably, this means that various sections will soon be out of date. .LP The volume is divided into nine sections: .DS 1. Commands 2. System calls 3. Subroutines 4. Special files 5. File formats and conventions 6. Games 7. Data bases and language conventions 8. Maintenance commands and procedures. 9. Teletype 5620-related software. .DE Commands are programs intended to be invoked directly by the user, in contradistinction to subroutines, which are intended to be called by the user's programs. Essential commands generally reside in directory .I /bin (for .I bin \|ary programs). Public programs also reside in .I /\|usr/\|bin. .R These directories are searched automatically by command interpreters. .LP System calls are entries into the .UX supervisor. The system call interface is identical to a C language procedure call; the equivalent C procedures are described in Section 2. .LP An assortment of subroutines is available; they are described in section 3. The primary libraries in which they are kept are described in .I intro (3). Most of these routines are C functions. Fortran users should consult the .I port (3) mathematical library. .LP The special files section 4 discusses the characteristics of each system `file' that actually refers to an I/O device. .LP The file formats and conventions section 5 documents the structure of particular kinds of files; for example, the form of the output of the loader and assembler is given. Excluded are files used by only one command, for example the assembler's intermediate files. .LP Games have been relegated to section 6 to keep them from contaminating the more staid information of section 1. .LP Section 7 is a miscellaneous collection of information sources and conventions for various specialized languages: character codes, macro packages for typesetting, news, weather, etc. .LP The maintenance section 8 discusses commands and procedures not intended for use by the ordinary user. The commands and files described here are almost all kept in the directory .I /etc. .LP Section 9 contains software intended for use with the Teletype 5620 terminal. In this category fall utilities that exploit the terminal and tools for writing code to run with or on it. .LP Each section consists of a number of independent entries of a page or so each. The name of the entry is in the upper corners of its pages, together with the section number. Sections 3 and 9 have further substructure as described in their respective introductions. Entries within each section are alphabetized. The page numbers of each entry start at 1; it is infeasible to number consecutively the pages of a document like this that is republished in many variant forms. .LP All entries are based on a common format, not all parts of which necessarily appear. .RS .LP The .I name subsection lists the exact names of the commands and subroutines covered under the entry and gives a very short description of their purpose. .LP The .I synopsis "" summarizes the use of the program being described. A few conventions are used, particularly in the Commands subsection: .LP .RS .B Boldface words are considered literals, and are typed just as they appear. .LP Square brackets [ ] around an argument indicate that the argument is optional. When an argument is given as `name', it always refers to a file name. .LP Ellipses `.\|.\|.' are used to show that the previous argument-prototype may be repeated. .LP A final convention is used by the commands themselves. An argument beginning with a minus sign `\-' is often taken to mean some sort of option-specifying argument even if it appears in a position where a file name could appear. Therefore, it is unwise to have files whose names begin with `\-'. .LP .RE The .I description "" subsection discusses in detail the subject at hand. .LP The .I examples subsection illustrates interesting usage. .LP The .I files "" subsection gives the names of files which are built into the program. .LP The .I see also .R subsection gives pointers to related information. .LP The .I diagnostics subsection discusses the diagnostic indications which may be produced. Messages which are intended to be self-explanatory are not listed. .LP The .I bugs "" subsection gives known bugs and sometimes deficiencies. Occasionally also the suggested fix is described. .LP .RE Following this introduction are a permuted index and glossary. .SH HOW TO GET STARTED .LP This section sketches the basic information you need to get started on .UX : how to log in and log out, how to communicate through your terminal, and how to run a program. See `\c .UX for Beginners' in Volume 2 for a more complete introduction to the system. .LP .I Logging in.\ \ .R You must call .UX from an appropriate terminal. Most any \s8ASCII\s0 terminal capable of full duplex operation and generating the entire character set can be used. You must also have a valid user name, which may be obtained, together with necessary telephone numbers, from the system administration. After a data connection is established, the login procedure depends on what kind of terminal you are using. .LP .I .I Dial-up terminals:\ \ .R If there is a half/full duplex switch, set it at full-duplex. When you have established a data connection, the system types out a few characters, intended to be `login:'. If they appear as gibberish, the computer is sending at the wrong baud rate; depress the `break' (or `interrupt') key; this is a speed-independent signal to .UX that a different speed terminal is in use. The system then will type `login:,' this time at another speed. Continue depressing the break key until `login:' appears in clear, then respond with your user name. From the TTY 37 terminal, and any other which has the `newline' function (combined carriage return and linefeed), terminate each line you type with the `new line' key, otherwise use the `return' key. .LP .I Hard-wired terminals.\ \ .R Hard-wired terminals usually begin at the right speed, up to 9600 baud; otherwise the preceding instructions apply. .LP For all terminals, it is important that you type your name in lower-case if possible; if you type upper-case letters, .UX will assume that your terminal cannot generate lower-case letters and will translate all subsequent upper-case letters to lower case. .LP The evidence that you have successfully logged in is that a shell program will type a prompt (normally `$') to you. (The shell is described below under `How to run a program.') .LP For more information, consult .I tabs (1), .I stty (1), or .I tset (1), which tell how to adjust terminal behavior, .I getty (8), which discusses the login sequence in more detail, and .I tty (4), which discusses terminal I/O. To arrange for these and other settings to be set automatically when the shell starts, provide a `.profile' file as described in .I sh (1). .LP .I Logging out.\ \ .R There are two ways to log out: .IP Type an end-of-file indication (EOT character, control-d) to the shell. The shell will terminate and the `login:' message will appear again. .IP Simply hang up the phone. .LP .I How to communicate through your terminal.\ \ .R When you type characters, a gnome deep in the system gathers your characters and saves them in a secret place. The characters will not be given to a program until you type a return (or newline), as described above in .I Logging in. .R .LP .UX terminal I/O is full-duplex. It has full read-ahead, which means that you can type at any time, even while a program is typing at you. Of course, if you type during output, the printed output will have the input characters interspersed. However, whatever you type will be saved up and interpreted in correct sequence. There is a limit to the amount of read-ahead, but it is generous and not likely to be exceeded unless the system is in trouble. When the read-ahead limit is exceeded, the system throws away all the saved characters. .LP The character `@' in typed input kills all the preceding characters in the line, so typing mistakes can be repaired on a single line. Also, the character `#' erases the last character typed. (Most users prefer to use a backspace rather than `#', and some prefer control-U instead of `@'; .I stty (1) can be used to arrange this.) Successive uses of `#' erase characters back to, but not beyond, the beginning of the line. `@' and `#' can be transmitted to a program by preceding them with `\\'. (So, to erase `\\', you need two `#'s). .LP The `break' or `interrupt' key causes an .I interrupt signal, .R as does the \s8ASCII\s0 `delete' (or `rubout') character, which is not passed to programs. This signal generally causes whatever program you are running to terminate. It is typically used to stop a long printout that you don't want. However, programs can arrange either to ignore this signal altogether, or to be notified when it happens (instead of being terminated). The editor, .I ed (1), for example, catches interrupts and stops what it is doing, instead of terminating, so that an interrupt can be used to halt an editor printout without losing the file being edited. .LP It is also possible to suspend output temporarily using ^S (control-s) and later resume output with ^Q. .LP The .I quit "" signal is generated by typing the \s8ASCII\s0 FS character. (FS appears many places on different terminals, most commonly as control-\e or control-\^|\^.) It not only causes a running program to terminate but also generates a file with the core image of the terminated process. Quit is useful for debugging. .LP Besides adapting to the speed of the terminal, .UX tries to be intelligent about whether you have a terminal with the newline function or whether it must be simulated with carriage-return and line-feed. In the latter case, all input carriage returns are turned to newline characters (the standard line delimiter) and both a carriage return and a line feed are echoed to the terminal. .LP Tab characters are used freely in .UX source programs. If your terminal does not have the tab function, you can arrange to have them turned into spaces during output, and echoed as spaces during input. The system assumes that tabs are set every eight columns. Again, the .I stty (1) command will set or reset this mode. .I Tabs (1) can be used to set the tab stops automatically when necessary. .LP .I How to run a program; the shell.\ \ .R When you have successfully logged in, a program called the shell is listening to your terminal. The shell reads typed-in lines, splits them up into a command name and arguments, and executes the command. A command is simply an executable program. The shell looks in several system directories to find the command. You can also place commands in your own directory and have the shell find them there. There is nothing special about system-provided commands except that they are kept in a directory where the shell can find them. .LP The command name is always the first word on an input line; it and its arguments are separated from one another by spaces. .LP When a program terminates, the shell will ordinarily regain control and type a prompt at you to indicate that it is ready for another command. .LP The shell has many other capabilities, which are described in detail in .I sh (1). .LP .I Bitmap terminals.\ \ .R If you have a Teletype 5620 terminal, you will probably wish to use .I mux (9), with mouse control, graphics, and multiple layers, each of which acts like a separate, simultaneously running .UX terminal, complete with its own shell. .LP .I The current directory.\ \ .R .UX has a file system arranged in a hierarchy of directories. When the system administrator gave you a user name, he also created a directory for you (ordinarily with the same name as your user name). When you log in, any file name you type is by default in this directory. Since you are the owner of this directory, you have full permission to read, write, alter, or destroy its contents. Permissions to have your will with other directories and files will have been granted or denied to you by their owners. As a matter of observed fact, few .UX users protect their files from perusal by other users. .LP To change the current directory (but not the set of permissions you were endowed with at login) use .I cd (1). .LP .I Path names.\ \ .R To refer to files not in the current directory, you must use a path name. Full path names begin with `/', the name of the root directory of the whole file system. After the slash comes the name of each directory containing the next sub-directory (followed by a `/') until finally the file name is reached. For example, .I /\^usr/\^lem/\^filex .R refers to the file .I filex .R in the directory .I lem ; .I lem .R is itself a subdirectory of .I usr ; .I usr .R springs directly from the root directory. .LP If your current directory has subdirectories, the path names of files therein begin with the name of the subdirectory with no prefixed `/'. .LP A path name may be used anywhere a file name is required. .LP Important commands which modify the contents of files are .I cp (1), .I mv (1), and .I rm (1), which respectively copy, move (i.e. rename) and remove files. To find out the status of files or directories, use .I ls (1). See .I mkdir (1) for making directories. .LP For a fuller discussion of the file system, see `The .UX Time-Sharing System,' by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie. It may also be useful to glance through section 2 of this manual, which discusses system calls, even if you don't intend to deal with the system at that level. .LP .I Writing a program.\ \ .R To enter the text of a source program into a .UX file, use one of the editors, .I ed (1), .I vi (1), or .I jim (9). The principal language processors in .UX .I cc (1) for C, .I f77 (1) for Fortran, and .I awk (1). Also available are .I pascal (1), .I snobol (1), and more. After the program text has been entered through the editor and written on a file, you can give the file to the appropriate language processor as an argument. The output of compilers will be left on a file in the current directory named `a.out'. (If the output is precious, use .I mv to move it to a less exposed name soon.)\ .LP When you have finally gone through this entire process without provoking any diagnostics, the resulting program can be run by giving its name to the shell in response to the shell prompt. .LP Your programs can receive arguments from the command line just as system programs do, see .I exec (2). .LP .I Text processing.\ \ .R Almost all text is entered through the editors. The commands most often used to write text on a terminal are: .I cat, pr, .R and .I nroff, all in section 1. .LP The .I cat command simply dumps \s8ASCII\s0 text on the terminal, with no processing at all. The .I pr "" command paginates the text, supplies headings, and has a facility for multi-column output. .I Nroff .R is an elaborate text formatting program. Used naked, it requires careful forethought, but for ordinary documents it has been tamed; see .I ms (7). .I .LP .I Troff prepares documents for a phototypesetter; it is very similar to .I nroff, and often works from exactly the same source text. It was used to produce this manual. Its output can drive various devices: phototypesetters, laser printers, and graphic terminals; see .I d202 (1) and .I proof (9). .LP .I Status inquiries.\ \ .R Various commands exist to provide you with useful information. .I Who (1) prints a list of users presently logged in. .I Date (1) prints the current time and date. .I Ls (1) will list the files in your directory or give summary information about particular files. .LP .I Surprises.\ \ .R Certain commands provide inter-user communication. Even if you do not plan to use them, it would be well to learn something about them, because someone else may aim them at you. .LP To communicate with another user currently logged in, .I write (1) is used; .I mail (1) will leave a message whose presence will be announced to another user when he next logs in, if not sooner. .I Mail (1), .I sysmon (9), and .I sh (1) provide ways to arrange for continuous monitoring of incoming mail. The write-ups in the manual also suggest how to respond to messages. .LP When you log in, a message-of-the-day may greet you before the first prompt. .LP .I Multiple machines.\ \ .R An Eighth Edition system may have tentacles to many other machines. If you are using .I mux (9), you may download programs for direct execution in your terminal. The file systems of certain remote .UX systems may be accessible through directory `/n'. Thus you may change working directory to one of these machines, although computing on your behalf is still being done on the machine you logged into. You may transmit data among such machines just as within one machine by using .I cp (1) or I/O redirection in the shell. You may also log into a remote machine to do processing there with input and output passing through the local machine; see .I dcon (1). Mail extends all over the world; see .I mail (7).